Plant- and Animal-Derived Organic Waste as Fillers in Biodegradable Composites for Advanced Applications: A Comprehensive Overview.

Biodegradable polymeric composites reinforced with natural fillers represent one of the most promising routes toward low-impact, circular, and resource-efficient materials. In recent years, a growing number of studies have focused on the valorization of plant- and animal-derived organic waste, ranging from agricultural residues and natural fibers to marine and livestock by-products. This review provides a comprehensive and comparative overview of these systems, analyzing the nature and origin of the waste-derived fillers, their pretreatments, processing strategies, and the resulting effects on mechanical, thermal, functional, and biodegradation properties. Particular attention is dedicated to the role of filler composition, morphology, and surface chemistry in governing interfacial adhesion and end-use performance across different polymeric matrices, including PLA, PCL, PBS, PHA, PHB, PBAT, and commercial blends such as Mater-Bi®. The emerging applications of these biocomposites, such as packaging, additive manufacturing, agriculture, biomedical uses, and environmental remediation, are critically discussed. Overall, this work provides fundamental insights to support the development of the next generation of biodegradable materials, enabling the sustainable valorization of organic waste within a circular-economy perspective.