Flowering and Fruiting of Coffea arabica L.: A Comprehensive Perspective from Phenology.

In Coffea arabica L., the processes of flowering and fruiting unfold over time as a series of phenological events influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors. This sequence governs the plant's reproductive cycle, directly affecting vegetative growth, crop productivity, and beverage quality. This review comprehensively addresses the developmental phases and provides descriptions of flower and fruit morphology, factors influencing flowering and fruiting, and competition for resource allocation, all of which are approached from a phenological perspective informed by the extended Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt and CHemical industry (BBCH) scale. The structural and emerging challenges that affect the sustainability of coffee cultivation should be effectively addressed to provide a foundation that supports the design of integrated strategies for the optimization of agronomic practices, increased yield, and genetic improvement.