FIAT LUX: The Mullein's (Verbascum sp.) Image and Its Symbology Through History Within the Euro-Mediterranean Culture.

The plant's representation had, in the past, a great symbolic relevance, which is now often neglected. The presence and significance of mullein (Verbascum sp.) in Euro-Mediterranean art have been investigated, but despite its iconographic importance, a wide analysis of its value and recurrence is lacking. Through a survey of over 5000 artworks, from ancient to modern age, combining digital museum collections and fieldwork, we identified about hundred depictions of Verbascum, 64 of which are here reported for the first time. Based on key morphological traits, V. thapsus and V. sinuatum emerged as the most frequently depicted species, particularly through their basal leaves and inflorescences (especially in modern ages). In archaeological contexts, Verbascum overall appears as a symbol of Athena/Minerva, bringers of light, and in funerary settings, such as Apulian vases and tombs, symbolizing new life in the afterlife. After its absence during the Middle Ages, the plant reappeared in the Renaissance, carefully portrayed by notable artists, such as Leonardo, Correggio, Bellini, Dürer, Caravaggio, and Bernini. During this period, mullein is often associated with Christ and St. John the Baptist, reinforcing its symbolism of light and spiritual elevation. Other representations also occurred in the subsequent centuries, but in a renovated vision of the natural world.