Role of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli and Other Pathogens in Kidney Stone Formation: From Pathogenesis to Treatment.

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are among the most prevalent infections in the human population. Uropathogenic Escherichia coli, the primary causative agent of UTIs, may also contribute to the development of metabolic kidney stones, particularly those composed of calcium oxalate. Kidney stone disease (KSD), known as nephrolithiasis or urolithiasis, is one of the most common disorders of the urinary system. This review explores the significant clinical association between UTIs and kidney stones, focusing on the mechanisms by which UPEC may promote stone formation, including oxidative stress, inflammation, and altered citrate metabolism. It also examines the role of immune responses, particularly macrophage activity, in the progression of KSD. Recent evidence suggests that the composition of the gut microbiota and metabolic imbalances have an additional impact on stone development. In light of these findings, current prevention and treatment strategies, including microbiota-targeted therapies, probiotics, and immune modulation, are also reviewed. Understanding the complex links between UTI, immunity, and metabolism provide new insights into the pathogenesis of KSD and allows for the development of more effective treatments for this disease.