Microplastics, Endocrine Disruptors, and Oxidative Stress: Mechanisms and Health Implications.

Microplastics and nanoplastics (<5 mm and <1 μm, respectively) are emerging contaminants now ubiquitous across environmental matrices and increasingly recognized for their impacts on human health. These particles commonly adsorb or contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals-such as bisphenol-A and phthalate additives-that together trigger complex biological responses. This review examines the central role of oxidative stress in mediating the toxicity of microplastics and associated endocrine disruptors across multiple organ systems. We discuss mechanisms including cellular uptake, reactive oxygen species generation, mitochondrial dysfunction, impairment of antioxidant defenses, and activation of key signaling pathways. Organ-specific effects on reproductive health, cardiovascular function, hepatic metabolism, gut barrier integrity, and neurological systems are highlighted. Current evidence strongly supports oxidative stress as a pivotal mechanism linking microplastic exposure to systemic toxicity, underscoring important implications for public health policy and clinical intervention strategies.