Artificial intelligence-based modeling for accurate leaf area estimation in olive (Olea europaea L.) cultivars.

Estimating olive (Olea europaea L.) leaf area is an important aspect of monitoring plant health and evaluating growth processes in agriculture. Accurate estimation of leaf area allows for a better understanding of processes such as water and nutrient utilization, photosynthesis efficiency, respiration, and yield potential. This study aims to determine the most accurate, easy, and reliable leaf area estimation model using the geometric properties (length and width) of olive leaves. Additionally, the predictive performances of multiple linear regression (MLR) and artificial neural network (ANN) were compared. A total of 1320 leaf samples collected from 22 olive cultivars were used in the study. Leaf length and width were taken as input parameters, and both MLR and ANN models were developed for each cultivar. Both multiple linear regression (MLR) and artificial neural network (ANN) models demonstrated high predictive accuracy for olive leaf area estimation across 22 cultivars. The MLR models explained up to 96% of the variation in leaf area using leaf length (LL) and leaf width (LW), with low root mean square errors, indicating strong reliability. When cultivar identity was modeled as a categorical factor through dummy encoding, the model captured significant cultivar-specific effects without altering the overall predictive performance. The ANN models achieved slightly higher accuracy, with determination coefficients exceeding 0.99 and minimal prediction errors, confirming their superior ability to model nonlinear relationships. Across both approaches, leaf width contributed more strongly to leaf area than leaf length. Cultivar-specific differences were statistically significant for only a few genotypes, while most cultivars exhibited comparable patterns after adjustment for multiple testing. In conclusion, both MLR and ANN models demonstrated high accuracy in predicting olive leaf area, with ANN models showing slightly superior performance. However, MLR models also yielded highly reliable results, indicating that both approaches are viable for practical applications in olive cultivation. These predictive models can be effectively used for rapid, non-destructive phenotyping, growth monitoring, and precision management in olive breeding and production systems.