From exceptionalism to universal testing: an historical review of HIV testing in Portugal.

INTRODUCTION: Portugal has made significant progress over the last 40 years in the response against the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection and the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). However, as of 2021, it remained one of the three Western European countries with the highest rates of new HIV infections and AIDS cases. Initially shaped by HIV exceptionalism, Portugal began transitioning to a universal testing strategy in 2011. This study provides a historical and policy review of the evolution of HIV testing in Portugal, focusing on alignment with international guidelines and national implementation outcomes. METHODS: We conducted a narrative policy review covering the period from 1998 to 2024. Our analysis drew on scientific literature, national health plans, surveillance reports, and international guidelines. Documents were selected through structured searches in multiple academic databases and government repositories using relevant Portuguese and English search terms. Thematically coded findings were mapped chronologically and assessed against evolving WHO and CDC recommendations. RESULTS: Portugal gradually moved from a targeted testing approach to a more comprehensive, universal strategy. Key policy shifts occurred in 2011 and 2017, accompanied by an expansion of testing modalities, including self-testing and community-based testing. Despite these developments, implementation has been uneven. The lack of standardized protocols, limited integration into primary healthcare, and regional disparities tied to a contract-based health system have contributed to inconsistent service delivery. Additionally, testing uptake among older adults, migrants, and other key populations remains suboptimal. The COVID-19 pandemic temporarily disrupted testing services but also accelerated the use of self-testing strategies. DISCUSSION: Portugal's experience illustrates the challenges of operationalizing universal HIV testing within a hybrid public-private healthcare system. Although policies increasingly reflect international best practices, structural barriers continue to hinder equitable implementation. CONCLUSION: To close existing testing gaps, Portugal must strengthen implementation by standardizing procedures, improve disaggregated data collection in monitoring systems, and ensure greater integration of HIV testing in primary healthcare. Enhanced outreach to underserved populations will be critical to achieving national and international HIV prevention targets. This paper offers a historical and policy perspective to inform more equitable and effective national testing strategies.