From political to democratic sophistication-A critical reappraisal.

Political sophistication (PS) describes how individuals absorb political information from their environment, integrate it into existing knowledge structures and form political opinions accordingly. This paper explores the origins and development of PS, offers a critical classification and proposes new avenues for conceptualization. Drawing on the literature from psychology, political science and educational research, the paper traces the evolution of the concept and highlights a shift in how PS is understood. By reviewing research on bias and values, especially work that engages with PS, the analysis identifies both the lack of a coherent theoretical framework and inconsistencies in its measurement. Existing findings, such as the so-called political sophistication bias, are critically re-examined in this context. Building on this foundation, the paper introduces democratic sophistication as a refined conceptualization of PS, framing it as an individual-level variable relevant to democratic citizenship. The potential of democratic sophistication is then explored concerning its role in social psychological research, its interdisciplinary relevance and its practical implications for understanding political discussion behaviour, mitigating polarization and fostering citizens' capacity for deliberative engagement.