Nanoparticle-mediated approaches to combat antibiotic resistance: a comprehensive review on current progress, mechanisms, and future perspectives.

Antibiotic resistance has become a serious global health issue that is responsible for millions of deaths each year globally. Multidrug resistant bacteria (MDR) are difficult to treat and pose a formidable health challenge to clinicians. The misuse of antibiotics has augmented the rise of resistant bacteria like ESKAPE (Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species), thus highlighting the urgent need for innovative strategies. The use of nanoparticles for disturbing bacterial growth, inhibiting biofilm formation and targeting antibiotic delivery could be a promising solution to MDR bacteria. This comprehensive review illustrates how nanoparticles cope with MDR infections due to antibacterial photodynamic therapy and use as carriers for targeted drug delivery systems. Though the applications of nanoparticles in the field of medicine to treat multidrug resistant infections is a promising solution, however, the challenges persist in translating nanoparticle-based systems into clinical settings. The main hurdles include biocompatibility, minimizing the cytotoxicity, overcoming scalability problems, and addressing regulatory and environmental concerns. This review explains the recent progress in metallic and non-metallic nanoparticles that help to combat antibiotic resistance, highlighting their therapeutic applications, mechanisms of action, and integration into existing antibacterial strategies. Future directions highlight research to enhance efficient, safe, and sustainable nanoparticle-based therapeutics that address the growing antibiotic resistance crisis.