Demystifying the impacts of anthropogenic activities on physicochemical characteristics of soil in four wetlands of Kashmir Valley, India.

Wetlands in Kashmir are increasingly threatened by anthropogenic pressures such as urban expansion, waste disposal, grazing, and tourism. This study assessed the impact of such disturbances on the soil physico-chemical and microbial properties of four major wetlands-Hokersar, Anchar, Manasbal and Shallabugh-between 2019 and 2021. Two-way ANOVA indicated significant variation in parameters across disturbed and undisturbed sites. The relatively undisturbed Shallabugh wetland exhibited superior soil quality, with higher moisture content, organic carbon, available nitrogen, calcium, magnesium and microbial indicators such as bacterial population and VAM spores. In contrast, disturbed wetlands showed increased bulk density, reduced phosphorus availability, and elevated levels of heavy metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cd, Mn). Principal component analysis and correlation matrices further distinguished disturbed from undisturbed sites. These results highlight the degradation of soil health in disturbed wetlands and emphasize the ecological value of undisturbed sites. Effective wetland governance and conservation strategies are crucial for maintaining soil fertility, microbial diversity, and overall ecosystem functioning in the region.