Potentially toxic elements in the Bangladeshi diet: An assessment of plant-based foods from a rural market.

Contamination of staple foods with potentially toxic elements (PTEs) poses significant health concerns. Following reports of elevated concentrations of cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and lead (Pb) in Bangladeshi soils, we aimed to determine the concentrations of these elements in commonly consumed vegetables (n = 10 species) and rice (n = 5 varieties) collected from markets in the Jamalpur district, Bangladesh, a representative rural market, to evaluate the associated human health risks. Mean PTE concentrations in vegetables frequently exceeded FAO/WHO food safety standards (FSS). All rice samples exceeded the FSS limits for Cd, Ni, and Pb, with 80 % exceeding the Cr limits. Health risks were calculated using estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), hazard index (HI), and target carcinogenic risk (TCR). While cumulative non-carcinogenic risks (HI < 1) were within acceptable levels for both adults and children, the EDI values for Cd, Ni, and Pb in adults, as well as Cd and Cr in children, exceeded their respective tolerable daily intakes (TDI). The TCR for Cd and Cr exceeded the USEPA threshold (10-4) for both age groups, indicating significant carcinogenic risks. Principal component analysis revealed that Cd, Ni, and Pb likely originated from common sources such as industrial emissions and contaminated irrigation water, while Cr appeared to stem from distinct inputs, possibly agrochemicals or textile-related activities. These findings indicate potential health risks, including carcinogenic effects, from dietary PTE exposure in Jamalpur. The results suggest that similar rural regions may benefit from source control, rigorous monitoring, and regulatory interventions to ensure food safety.