Understanding the role of polyethylene glycol coating in reducing the subcellular toxicity of MXene nanoparticles using a large multimodal model.

MXenes exhibit remarkable properties such as high electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, and versatile surface chemistry, positioning them as promising candidates for various applications in energy storage, biomedical engineering, and environmental remediation. However, concerns regarding their potential toxicity necessitate a deeper understanding of their interactions with biological systems. This study investigates the subcellular interactions of MXenes, focusing on the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and lysosomes. Using structured illumination microscopy (SIM), the observations reveal that MXenes exhibit selective toxicity, primarily causing structural damage to the ER, while leaving mitochondria and lysosomes largely unaffected. This organelle-specific toxicity appears to be linked to the negative surface charge of MXenes, which modulates their interactions with cellular components. Notably, surface modification of MXenes with polyethylene glycol (PEG) significantly reduces ER toxicity, thereby improving biocompatibility and offering a promising strategy for safer biomedical applications. Building on these findings, it also introduces a novel methodology that employs a large multimodal model (LMM), a state-of-the-art artificial intelligence (AI) framework, for the automated analysis and interpretation of super-resolution microscopy images.