Pathogenesis and advances in immunotherapy for type 1 diabetes treatment.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disease marked by selective destruction of pancreatic β-cells, resulting in absolute insulin deficiency. Although insulin replacement remains the standard therapy, it does not address the underlying autoimmune process or prevent long-term complications. Advances in understanding the pathogenesis have highlighted the interaction of genetic susceptibility, environmental triggers, and immune dysregulation, paving the way for innovative immunotherapies. Current strategies include nonspecific immunosuppressants, monoclonal antibodies (e.g., teplizumab, rituximab), peptide vaccines, and cell-based therapies such as regulatory T cells and stem cells. Among these, teplizumab has gained FDA approval to delay disease onset in high-risk individuals, representing a milestone in preventive intervention. Nevertheless, limited durability, high costs, and safety concerns restrict broader clinical application. Looking forward, personalized treatment strategies, rational drug combinations, and early preclinical interventions are expected to optimize outcomes, offering new hope for improving prognosis and quality of life in T1D patients.